Structuralist and Modernist Theories of Development

Structuralist and Modernist Theories of Development This essay is going to look at the rather broad question which theory of development I find most persuasive. It will look at the different theories of development and then critically assess the theories to show that I believe Modernisation theory to be the most persuasive, using examples to back up my argument. To fully engage with the question the essay will start by looking at and assessing Modernisation theory, secondly the essay will look at a structuralist approach and how it differs to modernisation theory. The essay will then look at political development theory and the differences between the theories, before concluding to try and show that overall the most persuasive theory of development is Modernisation. After World War Two we saw a departure from Classical Economics and Growth Theory to Modernisation Theory. The Theory reflected both a changing international political circumstance and developments made in social science circles with the journal Economic Development and Cultural Change publishing the social scientists findings of their Modernisation research . Walt Rostow presented his thesis on Modernisation theory looking at it as a five-stage process, showing countries moving from traditional societies to modern societies, the last stage for Rostow being The age of high mass consumption' (Hopper, 2012), which is when a country maintains high economic growth for an appropriate length of time. It follows the general principles of the Modernisation theory that it is a linear process of changing older traditions, methods and structures that countries have previously followed. Rostow believed that a way for Developing countries to benefit from Modernisation was for aid from developed c ountries to be sent to these countries so that they could gain some productive investments. The Marshall plan and the Alliance for Progress in Latin America were programs that were influenced heavily by Rostows theory. The Alliance for Progress was established between America and Latin America to promote economic and political development within the countries (Ish-Shalom, 2004). The Alliance had a few successes, for example growth in regional output in Latin America increased by 0.4% per capita, however during the 1960s 13 of the governments within the alliance were taken over by a military dictatorship leading an abrupt failure of the alliance. By the end of the 1960s the theory of Modernisation was under attack, a main reason being because many believed that the theories linear view dismisses the extent to which societies can be very diverse and different to other countries, especially those in the west, as these countries may fight change and resist changing their traditions, as it is assumed by authors that Third World Countries are traditional whilst Western countries are developed. In his book, John Martinussen talks about how some Modernisation theorists assume that because the model has worked in developed countries it will automatically transfer to work in developing countries (Hopper, 2012). Similarly, these ideas of development hugely downplay the level to which international conditions could impede development in the South. Structuralists would argue that developing countries are powerless to control their own futures because modernisation theory was to focused upon endogenous factors that it overlooked external factors due to the international economic order.   Ã‚   Structuralists focused on the structure of the international economy to look for patterns of the level of development in countries around the world. The theory is influenced by Keynesian which is a critique of classical economics and talks about how states rely upon government intervention and having a mixed economy, and that to become developed states should focus on achieving this, as the belief was that it would stimulate the economy and development within the country. The belief relied heavily upon governments in developing countries encouraging industrialisation through support such as financial help. Therefore, like modernisation theory we can see that structuralism shares a belief in industrialisation in a countries development. Also, the structuralist approach is rooted in Latin American experience, where the countries were very critical of international trade and there were attempts to discover and explain the lack of development in the area. Raul Prebisch looked at the idea of there being a structural rift in the international economy (Edgar J. Dosman, 2012) in which Latin America sat on the edge of this rift as it had the function of being able to provide natural resources, mainly serving those countries in the centre. With assistance from Prebisch CEPAL developed a theory of economic development for Latin America. This approach was based upon the ideas that development should not be copied from Western countries but instead established so that it represents the reality within the developing country. It also believed that protectionist policies should be adopted, such as importing tariffs on imported goods, as without such policies these countries would struggle to survive in the international free trade market as they would be in direct competition with western countries. CEPAL concluded that development, in Latin America at least, needs to take place within a Capitalist system and that countries that produced industrial goods would grow faster than those which specialised in primary commodities. Some structuralists held that countries of the Global South could overcome the unintentional restraints put on them by the already developed countries through trading between themselves (Hopper, 2012). Therefore, Structuralists would advocate a policy of Import-substitution industrialisation (ISI) described by Valpy Fitzgerald as being state-led industrialization, when CAPEAL was formed the organisation continued to push ISI as it was dealing with the shocks felt within Latin America from the disruption of international trade because of the Great Depression through World War Two, and by the 1950s CEPAL wanted to create a region-wide market that would capture economies of scale in production. (Love, 2005). Manufacturing in Latin America increased yearly by 6.3% (Sheahan, cited in Hopper 2012), showing that this structuralist approach had a positive effect in this area of the Global South, however some manufacturing industries in countr ies with small domestic markets struggled as they had limited population size to market their goods too and were further limited by the populations low incomes, leading to reductions in foreign exchange earnings so these industries would struggle to afford the technology needed to manufacture their goods which ISI was reliant on to work. ISI also ignored bureaucracy and corruption that have been a part of the states and governments throughout the world. Overall there were too many faults with some structuralists ideas and Latin America abandoned ISI after the debt crisis in the region in 1982. After the slow dissolution of ISI in Latin America, with a worsening debt crisis and terms of trade for primary products deteriorating a new approach, Dependency Theory, began to come to light from radical and neo-Marxists who began with critiquing both Modernisation and Structuralist theories. Their general argument is that Capitalism in the international community produces increased inequalities in levels of development allowing the North to exploit and extract wealth from the South. Paul Baran, a Development academic, considered this structure as the morphology of backwardness. (Bellamy Foster, 2007). Within Latin America Andrà © Gunder Frank argued that the lack of development within these countries can be directly connected to development in other areas of the world, this is through looking at a Capitalist world system characterised by a centre-periphery dichotomy where Latin America sits on the periphery with the countries of the North in the centre, the result of this dichoto my being an unequal exchange in the international market with the North becoming developed and dominating and the South being underdeveloped and dependent. A conclusion from dependency theorists seemed to be that capitalism needs to be abolished if underdevelopment is the result of a capitalist society. However, a challenge to the theory emerged when newly industrialised countries could almost be seen to be bridging the gap in the dichotomy, Immanuel Wallerstein disagreed slightly with dependency theory and stated that the dichotomy had three levels; centre, semi-periphery and periphery, Wallerstein developed World-systems theory. This theory sought to explain the central-periphery dichotomy produced by the Capitalist system, Wallerstein offer a more fluid concept of the dichotomy saying that it is possible for countries to move in and out of these categories whether it be due to development or economic decline, this can account for the change in countries such as China and India (H opper, 2012). However, critics would argue that despite Wallersteins theory that Dependency theorists underplay internal and natural causes of underdevelopment. During the 1980s Latin America witnessed an economic crisis leaving the areas GDP growth rate as 1.1% whereas its overall growth rate of its per capita GDP was negative (Shixue, 2008). This was due to flaws from the ISI model and corruption within the region by officials. Also, many claim that the theory fails to provide answers to developing countries predicament, as the theory states that dependency is a root cause of their underdevelopment but provides no escape. There is either a need for developed countries to disconnect themselves from the international market or for a creation of a new international economic system. Therefore, Dependency theory provides little hope to developing countries. In conclusion when analysing the different theories of development it is apparent that all the three main theories can be recognised as having some influence within developing countries.

Fidelis ad Mortem A History of The New York Police Essay

Since the declaration of Dutch independence in 1609, the city of New York, the called New Amsterdam, had been a relatively large and sprawling municipality. As one might expect, the city had criminal elements in proportion to its population. (Costello, 1885) Throughout its history, the entity that would become the New York Police Department has represented the leading edge in law enforcement, organization, technology and civilian relations. By 1800, having repaired the privations caused by the revolution of 1776, the city began to formalize its law enforcement procedures. Costello, 1885) In 1798, the city established its first official police office. By 1800, the city had four incarceration centers. Three of them were criminal jails and one was a debt prison. (Costello, 1885) The institutions were the State Prison, the Penitentiary, Bridewell, and The Jail. (Costello, 1885) The city had already been administratively divided into three districts. Because two of the districts were so large geographically, the â€Å"Watch† as they were called then, abandoned their traditional practice of standing at station, and began the first foot patrol in the history of New York law enforcement. Costello, 1885) By 1803 the number of patrolmen in each of the three districts fifty, fifty-four and thirty-six. Each district was overseen by two captains of the watch, who were the administrative heads of the district. (Costello, 1885) This system, called the constabulary (as it was administered by constables) lasted and grew until the formal establishment of a police department in 1845. After the last high constable of the city of New York (a position analogous to the Police Commissioner) Jacob Hayes, retired in 1844, the governor of New York gave permission to the mayor to establish a police force. Costello, 1885) Watchmen and constables were replaced with police officers. (Costello, 1885) The officers wore eight-pointed stars (these represented the eight constables of the watch that existed in 1844) featuring the city seal, and made of copper. (Frequently Asked†¦1999) It was the wearing of these copper stars that earned the police the nickname â€Å"cop†. (Short for copper). (Frequently Asked†¦1999) In Britain, the same nickname for police was derived from the initials of their title, Citizens on Patrol. Thus the United States and Britain had their own distinct â€Å"cops† patrolling the street. Frequently Asked†¦1999) The headquarters of the New York Police Department have changed over times. They began as a series of offices in City Hall, and in 1909, a building dedicated entirely to police administration was built on Center Street in Little Italy. This remained the centerpiece of the department until 1973, when the offices were relocated to the financial district at One Police Plaza. The image of a modern New York City patrol officer is a combination of many traditions, regulations, habits and practices adopted and adapted for conditions within New York City. Frequently Asked†¦1999) The eight-pointed hat that is emblematic of the patrol officer is a memorial of the eight original Dutch Watchmen. (Frequently Asked†¦1999) These hats have been standard issue for patrol officers since 1928. (Frequently Asked†¦1999) The â€Å"night stick† is so-named because police used to have two sticks as weapon issue. (Frequently Asked†¦1999) One was 11 inches long, and the second was 26 inches long. The longer stick was used on night patrol as this was the more dangerous time for the police. The 11-inch day-stick has since been abandoned, but the longer â€Å"night sticks† are still standard issue. Frequently Asked†¦1999) The patrolmen of the NYPD began carrying guns by regulation in 1887. (Frequently Asked†¦1999) Originally mandated as a . 32 Colt revolver, the traditional police handgun was changed to a . 38 revolver stamped with the wielder’s shield number. (Frequently Asked†¦1999) This standard service revolver was the required primary weapon until 1993, when the force officially switched to nine-millimeter semi-automatic pistols. (Frequently Asked†¦1999) As the police department grew, the traditions and habits with which we are familiar from movies and television began to develop. From 1854 until the practice was discontinued in 1959, the force used whistles to summon fellow officers when needed. (Frequently Asked†¦1999) The whistles had a loud and distinct sound, and replaced the practice of banging on the curb with an officer’s nightstick. By 1959, radio technology rendered the whistles obsolete, and they were no longer standard issues for patrol officers. (Frequently Asked†¦1999) They remain in use for traffic-control officers; however, as they still serve to call attention of civilian drivers. (Frequently Asked†¦1999) As a social institution, the NYPD was more progressive than many of its institutional counterparts. Frequently Asked†¦1999) As early as 1911, well before the Civil Rights movement, the NYPD Appointed Samuel J. Battle as the first African-American police officer. Hispanics received representation in NYPD even earlier. (Frequently Asked†¦1999) George Garcia was the first Hispanic police officer, appointed in 1896 . (Frequently Asked†¦1999) The necessity of having to deal with female criminals made the appointment of female officers an earlier necessity. (Frequently Asked†¦1999) In 1891, four police matrons were appointed to deal with female prisoners. In 1911, the title of Policewoman was created, and six women were appointed. Frequently Asked†¦1999) Despite their long history of diligence, bravery and courage in a very difficult setting, the NYPD has also had its share of low points. In the late 1950s and into the 1960s, the department fell victim to rampant corruption. (Kefauver Investigation†¦ n. d. ) Criminal organizations had made permanent and profitable allies in within the department, and the police began acting according to the whims of crime bosses, offering enforcement and punishment for drug trafficking enterprises throughout the city. (Kefauver Investigation†¦ n. d. When an officer, Frank Serpico, attempted to expose these abuses, he was violently repressed by members of the police depa rtment. Eventually, in the early 1970s, after being shot in the face in the line of duty (under suspicious circumstances) Serpico took his story to the New York Times. (Kefauver Investigation†¦ n. d. ) Under close scrutiny from the press, the Mayor formed a commission to investigate the corruption claims. (Kefauver Investigation†¦ n. d. ) The resulting Knapp Commission investigation led to the removal of the police chief, Frank Leary, who was replaced by Patrick Murphy. Kefauver Investigation†¦ n. d. ) Murphy instituted many reforms and helped the department regain the trust of the people. Despite this victory, Serpico himself was harassed by his fellow officers for turning â€Å"rat. † (Kefauver Investigation†¦ n. d. ) He retired from the police and moved to Europe. This incident highlighted an ongoing problem in New York Police History. (Kefauver Investigation†¦ n. d. ) With the prevalence of alcohol bootlegging, and , later, drug trafficking, it was easy for organized criminals to bribe special treatment from the police. While not many officials were actually corrupt, it was very difficult to weed out corruption, because the police tend to be extremely loyal, and a Serpico’s case shows, reluctant to implicate one of their own. (Kefauver Investigation†¦ n. d. ) Cases of abuse by the police have also been alleged in the latter half of the 20th century. (Mushabec & Wiggen, 2008). In 1962, mobster and alleged murderer Frank Lito accused the department of extreme acts of violence during his interrogation. (Mushabec & Wiggen, 2008). His claims were backed by his appearing with broken limbs(Mushabec & Wiggen, 2008).. The department was forced to release him under probation when he threatened to bring a civil suit. (Mushabec & Wiggen, 2008). In 1994, a police officer was accused of choking Anthony Baez. At the officer’s trial, two other officers were also convicted of lying to cover the incident up. (Mushabec & Wiggen, 2008). In 1997, another abuse case, this one occurring in the offices of the 70th precinct resulted in the conviction of several officers for both the act and the cover-up. (Mushabec & Wiggen, 2008). In 1999, Amadou Diallo, an innocent citizen, was shot 41 times by Street Crimes detectives who mistook him for a criminal. Mushabec & Wiggen, 2008). Diallo was unarmed. (Mushabec & Wiggen, 2008). The Street Crimes unit was disbanded as a result, and the city had to pay a $30,000,000 settlement to the family. (Mushabec & Wiggen, 2008). A few notable incidences also occurred where public violence was caused or inflamed by police activity. (Mushabec & Wiggen, 2008). In 1988, Tompkin Square Park erupted when police attempted to enforce a curfew. (Mushabec & Wiggen, 2008). After police clashed violently with protesters, the commissioner found that the fault for the violence was on the poor planning and execution by the NYPD. In another notable incident, the NYPD was actually the instigator of a riot in 1992. (Mushabec & Wiggen, 2008). Supporters of mayoral candidate Rudy Giuliani, the NYPD rioted and attacked city hall under then-mayor David Dinkins. (Mushabec & Wiggen, 2008). Dinkins was forced to close City Hall to the police in fear of further violence. (Mushabec & Wiggen, 2008). In 2007 The New York state inspector general said that the New York City Police Department’s crime lab cut corners analyzing evidence and submitted results in drug cases without having done the required tests in 2002. Mushabec & Wiggen, 2008). Inspector General Kristine Hamann said that serious errors were made following exsisting protocols, which had since been changed. (Mushabec & Wiggen, 2008). She said past officials failed to appropriately monitor some lab workers’ performance and enforce standards. Hamann said her investigation began after the state Division of Criminal Justice Services asked her to investigate allegations of â€Å"dry labbing† – sending results to police and prosecutors without doing the actual lab tests – in 2002. Mushabec & Wiggen, 2008). Despite these incidents, and numerous other cases of varying brutality and error, the overall record of the NYPD is impressive. The men and women of the New York Police department also have a long and prestigious history of protecting the population of the city. (Bosak, 1999) In 1863, in the middle of a hot summer, and short of patrolmen, the Police of New York was called upon to protect African Americans of the city from the rioting mobs who protested Abraham Lincoln’s Civil War Draft. Bosak, 1999) The African-Americans were obvious targets given the perception in the city that the war was being fought to free southern slaves. (Bosak, 1999) The violence began as the enlistment office on 3rd Ave. was burned to the ground by a segment of the city’s own fire department in protest to their prospective draft. (Bosak, 1999) Beaten nearly to death on his way to third avenue, was Joseph Kennedy, a police Chief of Department, and police precinct offices became targets of rioters as four were killed and two station houses destroyed on the first day of riots. Bosak, 1999) As the rioting expanded, the citizen protesters were joined by criminals, looters and other miscreants and the violence escalated (Bosak, 1999). The armory was sacked and burned, and the rioters did the same to a home for orphaned Black children. (Bosak, 1999) A station on West 35th St. wired police headquarters on Mulberry Street with a question. (Bosak, 1999) Expecting an attack, they asked if they should fight or flee. The message they received from police headquarters was a single word: â€Å"Fight. (Bosak, 1999) The 35th street station took in the Black orphans and withstood seven attacks by the mob without capitulating. (Bosak, 1999) It was from events during this riot that the citizens gifted the NYPD with their motto, Fidelis ad Mortem†, loyal to the death. (Bosak, 1999) From 1806 to 2007, the department has lost 758 officers in the line of duty. Of those deaths, twenty-three occurred as a result of the terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center in September of 2001. (Mushabec & Wiggen, 2008). Nearly half of the remainder of deaths was from hostile gunfire. (Mushabec & Wiggen, 2008). Headquartered now at 1 Police Plaza in Manhattan’s financial District. , the New York City Police department spans over 20 different departments and nearly eighty patrol precincts. (Mushabec & Wiggen, 2008). Despite the occasional instances of misconduct, the nearly 40,000 men and women of the New York Police Department have served with a great deal of distinction under very difficult circumstances in a city renowned for its violence, drug use and crime. (Mushabec & Wiggen, 2008). The police have been able to reduce the occurrence of all of these acts, and continue to earn the trust of the population.

Interpersonal Conflict in Film American Beauty Essay

Site 1 Conflict Management Style This activity will help you determine your natural style for dealing with conflict. It is useful to assess your predominant conflict management style(s) because we all tend to prefer one or two of the styles and at times may apply them inappropriately. Read the information available from the DSP Training Resources site in lesson 8.6. 1.What animal symbolizes your method for dealing with conflict? (name) (5 points). The Collaborating Owl Write a description of your conflict management style? Discuss three reasons why this method of dealing with conflict is negative or positive? Owls use a collaborating or problem confronting conflict management style valuing their goals and relationships. A. Owls is positive when peer conflict is involved, both sides get what they want and negative feelings eliminated. B. when trying to gain commitment through consensus building, both sides gets what they want and negative feelings eliminated. C. when learning and trying to merge differing perspectives, both sides gets what they want and negative feelings eliminated. Conflict Resolution Role-Play Script Directions: Please read and select a case scenario, which can be located in lesson 8.6. Using the steps for conflict resolution, find a solution for one of the  problems located on the activity page for this lesson. Note: You will need to devise a role-play or script for the scenario, using each one the six steps listed below. This script is a dialogue; remember a dialogue is a conversation between two people. For example:1. Mutually agree on the time and place to discuss a serious issue. â€Å"Hey John, meet me in the library so we can discuss what happened today in class.†2. Use an â€Å"I† Statement†¦.â€Å"I feel angry when you†¦..etc.Select one of the scenarios by referring to the presentation on the lesson page of the course.| Write your answers below: 1.Mutually agree on the time and place to discuss a serious issue. (10 points) â€Å"Hey Brianna, meet me at 12:00 a.m. in the cafeteria so we can discuss what happened in class today. 2.Use an â€Å"I† statement to express your feelings, identify the unwanted behavior and work toward resolution. (10 points) I feel angry when you are mean to me. The unwanted behavior is â€Å"angry† 3.Give equal time for both sides to be heard. INCLUDE BOTH SIDES OF THE CONVERSATION. (10 points) Talk about how each of you has contributed to the problem. Remember to use active listening skills. â€Å"What I think I hear you saying is you are getting burned out and you would like to have a life outside of school.’ â€Å"Correct me if I am wrong but aren’t you saying is all you do is things related to work.† Mirror their words â€Å"So, as I see it you will like a life outside of school â€Å"You feel that all you do is things related to school† â€Å"As I get it, you feel that you don’t have time to yourself.† â€Å"I can see you are feeling you don’t have time to yourself† 4.Brainstorm ways to resolve the conflict. (List at least two ways.) (10 points) 1. Agree on the rules of discussion before you begin; stick to the rules. 2. Remain on the topic; don’t bring up past hurts. 5.Discuss possible solutions. (List at least two solutions.) (10 points) 1. Give equal time for both sides to be heard. 2.Listen to each other; the feelings being expressed are real 3.Agree on one solution and then try it. (10 points) Share ideas and reach a solution that is mutually agreeable to each person.

The Impact Of Management On Employee Job Satisfaction

Introduction Management plays a key role in employee job satisfaction. A manger’s leadership style and interpersonal communication skills can have a huge impact on employee job satisfaction. Excellent interpersonal communication skills are a characteristic that a good manager must possess. Employees become dissatisfied with their jobs when they feel that their voices are not heard, they are not being treated fairly, and the specifics of the job itself are not being communicated properly. Direction of Communication Communication is essential to satisfactory job performance. Lack of effective communication harms the worker and his or her co-workers. When a manager does not have effective communication with his or subordinates, the organization suffers. The type of communication that flows from management to lower level employees is considered downward communication. 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